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The
Ghaznavids
Sebuktigin, the son - in - law of Alptigin, became ruler of Ghazni in the
year 366/977. From there he occupied the surrounding regions, such as
Zamin Davar, Qosdar, Bamiyan, Tokharestan and Ghur, and founded a
small state in southeastern Iran. After his death in 387/997, his son
Sultan Mahmud was able to establish a state relatively worthy of respect.
By conquering Sistan, Gharjestan and Jozjanan, Mahmud extended his
father's territory, and with the signing of a treaty with Ilek - Khan, the
ruler of Transoxania,he established the Oxus River as the border between
the two states. Afterwareds, in 408/1017 - 8, Mahmud conquered Khwarazm
and in 419/1028 he annexed Gorgan. In addition his son, Sultan Masud,
conquered Tabarestan in 425/1034. To the southeast Sultan Mahmud invaded
India sixteen times, conquered the Punjab and Kashmir and advanced on the
one hand to Qannuj and Kalanjar and on the other to the peninsula of
Gojarat. But these
invasions can not be considered among Mahmud's permanent conquests, for in
each case after defeating the garrisons and plundering the temples he
returned to Ghazni without appointing a governor for the defeated regions.
Hence the border remains the Indus River and its western branch, which
passes near Peshavar. During Sultan Mahmud's reign, southern Iran was in
the hands of the successors of Adhud al - Dawla. The various branches of
this family in Kerman, Fars and for the most part warred among
themselves to Khuzestan gain ascendancy over the others. Towards the end
of his reign, Sultan Mahmud turned attention toward western Iran and in
420/1029 he took Rey from Abu Talib Rustam ibn Fakhr al - Dawla, entitled
Majd al - Dawla, and turned the government of this city and of Isfahan
over to his son Masud. Masud also extended his territory to the west by
capturing Qazvin
and Hamedan. At this time the Rawwadi dynasty was ruling in Azarbaijan
while Iraq and the western lands of Iran such as Kordestan, Kermanshah and
Lorestan were under the domination of the Abbasid caliph. After the death
of Sultan Mahmud the Seljuks came to power in northern Khorasan and Sultan
Masud was not able to hold his ground against them. In 432/1041 he was
killed on his way to India. Masud's successors lost Ghazni and the
southeastern sections of Iran to the Seljuks and the Ghaznavids came to an
end in 582/1186-7 when the Ghurids captured their last capital city,
Lahore.
The Seljuks
Having received the permission of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznawi, the Seljuk Turks
crossed the Oxus River and settled in northern Khorasan, a province which
they subsequently occupied completely during the reign of Mahmud's son,
Sultan Masud. In 429/1038 Toghril Beg was crowned as the Seljuk sultan in
Neishabur. With the help of his brothers and paternal cousins, Toghril
then turned to the occupation of the surrounding areas. In 433/1041 - 2 he
took Gorgan and Tabarestan from Anushirwan the Ziyarid; in 434/1042 - 3 he
occupied the cities of Eraq - e - Ajam and made Rey the center of his
government; in 443/1051 - 2 he took Isfahan and terminated the rule of the
Kakuyids in Eraq - e - Ajam; and in 447/1055 he brought the Buyid dynasty
to an end with the capture of al - Malik al - Rahim. In 446/1054 Toghril
Beg captured Azarbaijan and subjugated Amir Manur Wahsudan Rawwadi, and
after taking the cities of Ganja and Malazgerd and the region of Armenia,
he
reached the borders of the Byzantine Empire. During the reign of Toghril
Beg the local states in Iran either ceased to exist or accepted Toghril's
rule. Kerman remained in the hands of Qavurt, Toghril's nephew, who had
been appointed as its governor and who became founder of the Seljuks of
Kerman. During the reign of Alp Arslan and his son Malik - Shah the
territory of the Seljuks underwent further expansion. To the west Tajal -
Dawla Tutush captured Syria in470/1077 - 8 and founded the Seljuk dynasty
of Syria. Sulayman ibn Qutulmush became ruler of Qunya and founded the
Seljuk dynasty of Asia Minor (Rum). Through the efforts of these and other
Seljuk princes the Seljuk territory to the west was extended to the
Mediterranean and to the borders of the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimid
Caliphate of Egypt. To the east Malik - Shah in 482/1089 invaded
Transoxania as far as Uzkand. Also the ruler of Kashghar accepted his
sovereignty. After the death of Mali k - Shah, differences arose among his
descendants and the Seljuk Empire entered
upon the path towards disintegration.Sultan Sanjar was able to rule over
all of the Seljuk princes for a short period and to extend Seljuk
territory to the east and the northeast by the renewed conquest of
Transoxania and by gaining the allegiance of the Ghaznavids. But after his
death the Khwarazm - Shahs came to power and in 590/1194 they overthrew
the Seljuk of Iraq.
The Khwarazm - Shah
Malik - Shah bestowed the provincial governorship of Khwarazm on Anush -
Tegin Gharchal. Until Sultan Sanjar's death, the rule of Anush - Tegin's
successors was limited to Khwarazm itself. After his death
however, Sultan Ala al - Din Tokesh gained control of Khorasan and in
590/1194 put Toghril III, the last of the Seljuk kings of Iraq, to death
and annexed his territory. Sultan Muhammad, Ala al - Din's son, conquered
Mazandaran in the year 606/1209 - 10 and also wrested
Kerman from the rule of the successors of Malik Dinar. When the Ghurids
fell in 612/1215 - 6 Sultan Muhammad occupied the lands of Ghur,
Gherjestan, Sistan and Zabolestan and extended his southeast
frontier to the Indus River. He also took Transoxanian from the Qara -
Khitais and extended his territory in that direction to the borders of
Kashgher. By forcing Sad ibn Zangi, the Atabeg of Fars, and Uzbak, the
Atabeg of Azarbayjan, to accept his authority, he added these two
provinces as well to the sphere of his influence. Because of the Mongol
invasion, however, Sultan Muhammad was not able to carry out his intention
of attacking Baghdad and occupying the territories of the Abbasid caliph.
And although Jalal al - Din, Sultan Muhammad's son, resisted the Mongols
bravely for ten years and extended his father's domain to include Georgia,
his death in 628/1231 brought the rule of the Khwarazm - Shahs to an end,
and thus Iran fell into the
hands of the Mongols.
The Khans
Chingiz - Khan divided the lands he had conquered among his sons during
his own lifetime. Iran, however, he did not bestow upon any of them, and
until 651/1253 it was administered by governors sent from Mongolia. In
that year Hulegu - Khan was sent by his brother Megu - Qaan to conquer the
fortresses of the Ismailis, overthrow the Abbasid caliph and occupy the
territories which had not yet been taken by the Mongols. His successors in
Iran made up the independent Il - Khanid dynasty. To the northeast the
domain of the Il - Khans bordered on the territory occupied by the
successors of Chaghatai, the son of Chingiz, which included Transoxania
and eastern and western Torkestan. The Oxus River always remained the
border between the territories of these two families. To the southeast the
border of the Il - Khanid territory was the Indus River and the Punjab,
which had been occupied by the Mongols at the time of Chingiz. To the west
the Mongols reached the borders of Syria, which was occupied by the
Egyptians, at the time of
Hulegu - Khah, and in fact the Euphrates River made up the western border
of Il - Khanid territory. Although the Mongols were sometimes able to
conquer parts of Syria, they were always forced to retreat to the regions
east of the Euphrates by the strong Egyptian resistance.
After the fall of the Seljuks of Asia Minor, the Il - Khans extended their
northwestern borders to the edges of the Byzantine Empire. To the north
the Il - Khanid territory included Darband and Georgia and bordered upon
the areas occupied by the successors of Jochi, another son of Chingiz.
Although the Mongols gained control over all of Iran, in some provinces
local dynasties ruled semi - independently under their sovereignty. These
included the Kart Dynasty of Harat, Ghur and Gharjestan, which continued
to rule even after the death of Sultan Abu Said Bahadur Khan, the last of
the Il - Khans, and the Qara - Khitai of Kerman, whose rule was put to an
end in the year 703/1303 - 4. The province of Fars was under the financial
administration of the Il - Khans from the time Hulegu - Khan onward, but
it continued to possess a degree of independence until the year 684/1285 -
6, when Abish Khatun, the last of the Atabegs of Fars, was still alive. In
southwesten Iran or the present - day Bakhtiyari region and Lorestan, the
Great and the Little Atabegs of Lor continued their political life under
Mongol sovereignty. The local rulers of Hormuz on the islands and shores
of the Persian Gulf, the Shabankara kings of eastern Gars and the rulers
of Lar in the city of Lar in Fars also administered small local
governments, for the most art under Mongol control. Sistan was in the
hands of local rulers who were the successors of the Saffarids. In\~Gilan~\~Mazandaran~.
Source:
Historical Atlas of Iran, University of Tehran,
Institute of Geography
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